GEISHA

Geisha: it means something different to everyone today; it can call to mind "prostitute", a popular rock band, rice, porcelain, and any other number of images that do not touch the reality of who and what geisha are. Until recently, not much was known in the West about geisha except certain facts and many conjectures: they were known to entertain men in public and private events, their white faces and red lips have become the image of "Japan" visible on travel books and posters, and "geisha" is synonymous with "prostitute" for many. This essay will attempt to give a short history of geisha in Japan and analyze how geisha have been seen, and are now seen, in both Japanese and Western societies.

Geisha: Description and History
Description

"Geisha" is a word that means "one who practices / lives by their gei (art)." Through this simple definition we can establish the history of who the geisha are and how they have been seen. Gei specifically refers to the arts of playing the shamisen (a three stringed instrument), drums, traditional dancing and singing, the tea ceremony, calligraphy, and the art of conversation.
The geisha establishment as it is today was formalized in the late 1800's. It consists of neighborhoods called hanamachi where there are teahouses, artisans, noodle shops and okiya - the houses where geisha live. In the okiya there lives the okamisan (the "mother" who runs the house), along with her family and the various geisha, maiko's and tamago's. Young girls are taken into the house at various ages, and perform various chores whilst observing the geisha and maiko (geisha-in-training). They are called tamago, which means "egg" and is indicative of their level of training. When they reach 17 they can become maiko, and begin training in earnest to be geisha. The maiko take lessons in the shamisen, dancing and the other arts of the geisha. They can go to geisha parties, but are not expected to be as socially poised as geishas. Maiko are very recognizable by their elaborate hairstyles, white face makeup and red lip (maiko only put red lipstick on their lower lip). There are other signs as well, having to do with how they wear their kimono and tie their obi. Once a maiko is ready, at around age 20, she goes through the erikae ceremony; erikae means "turning the collar" and refers to one part of how her dress changes when she changes from maiko to geisha. Before the "modernizing" influence reached Japan, maiko also underwent mizu-age, a ceremony that revolved around their losing their virginity to the highest bidder. This is now forbidden. When maiko become geisha, their makeup becomes subtler, their hair is tied in a bun and their kimonos, while still elegant, become less colorful. Maiko are comparable to beautiful bright butterflies; geisha are those same butterflies but have matured into a more elegant, experienced, composed and subtle species.
Geisha work by entertaining guests at expensive teahouses, where they will perform, pour drinks, tell jokes and stories and generally "keep the party going." Their presence is prohibitively expensive (a modern change; their services were cheaper in their heyday) and they entertain la crème de la crème of Japanese society. Their main income comes from the teahouses and their patrons. One thing to note is that while the main time of training in the arts occurs during the maiko period, geisha continue to improve upon their artistic skills throughout their professional careers. This is due to their goal of realizing perfection in their art and also to their participation in yearly dance performances. The geisha participate in the dance performances, which usually costs them a lot of money, for the prestige and love of the art. Due to the high cost of their lifestyle (each kimono can cost 10,000 USD, not counting their obi's and tabi's (socks) which are handmade and also expensive) many geisha rely on "patrons." These men provide the geisha with kimonos and money, and in return receive more special attention; whether this includes sexual favors is dependant upon the geisha's wishes.
It would be instructive to provide a quick note here about the economics of being a geisha. Training a maiko up into being a geisha is very expensive. The okiya must provide her with all of her kimono and lessons and pay for the multitude of expenses she incurs; over 80 years ago one of these expenses could have been the okiya's cost of acquiring her, whether through a "slave trader" or through paying her parents directly. Due to this expense by the time a maiko had become a geisha she owed her okiya an immense amount of money. She paid this off by working as a geisha; thus it worked as a kind of bondage system. If a geisha wanted to retire, she usually had to come up with the remainder of the money she owed her okiya. She could usually do this in one of two ways: by working as a geisha for many years or by having a wealthy patron "buy her out." If a geisha worked for many years she could manage to save enough money to open a business or okiya.

History

The geisha's arts were developed in the Tokugawa period (1600-1868) in Japan, but geisha as such didn't really flourish until the Meiji era (1868-1910's). Geisha were originally men called in to entertain in the "flower and willow world" (karyukai), also called the "water world" or the "floating world," which contained prostitutes, entertainers and their patrons. Soon all geisha were women, however, and while they were prohibited from competing with the prostitutes, there is evidence that they did. Geisha and prostitutes separated their activities after the geisha became more popular and were called to entertain at other teahouses and outside the walled confines of the flower and willow world. Geisha came to occupy the top levels of the water world, and were the leaders in defining chic fashion and the arts in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Part of the reason for this popularity was the important role geisha played in the changing of government from Tokugawa to Meiji; the revolution was planned in the teahouses of Gion and Pontocho. The geisha involved remained silent about the revolution and even occasionally protected the revolutionaries from the officials. The revolutionaries rewarded the geisha's support by patronizing them after the successful change of government (Liza Crihfield: The Institution of the Geisha in Modern Japanese Society thesis (Stanford University, 1978), page 65.)
With the coming of the Taisho and Showa periods (1920s to '30s), Western material culture and ideology was imported into Japan. The geisha at first tried to modernize along with the rest of society, but soon realized that they would lose everything that made them special and become just another type of jokyu (bar hostesses and café girls) if they did. This period was one of confusion for the geisha, and with the coming of World War 2, the geisha establishment was even disbanded for some years. After the war, the geisha returned to their old neighborhoods, but not in the same numbers as they had had before. Increasing competition with the Westernized jokyu led to the geisha forfeiting their place as the queens of the fashionable world and instead became the preservers of the traditional arts and entertainments. The situation was complicated by the fact that "The geisha were dismayed at the number of prostitutes who called themselves "geisha girls" for the benefit of the American troops, and the G.I.'s of course, were unaware of such nuances." (Crihfield, page 100) This confusion of true geisha with prostitutes had long-lasting repercussions, as will be discussed later. Nowadays the true geisha numbers have dwindled even further and there is some doubt as to how much longer the geisha can maintain their unique way of life.

Through Japanese Eyes
Geisha as Artists vs. Geisha as part of the sex industry

Geisha consider themselves true artists. A quote from Mayumi, a geisha, shows how seriously they take their art: "A geisha contains her art within herself, and because her body has this art, her life is saved. That is the power of art - the salvation of one's soul." (Jodi Cobb: Geisha: the Life, the Voices, the Art. (New York : Alfred A Knopf, 1997) page 23). Geisha judge each other on the basis of their artistic talents; their scorn for onsen geisha is mostly based on the perceived lack of training and devotion to the arts shown by the onsen geisha. (onsen mean "hot springs" - it refers to "geisha" who entertain at resorts) Mayumi sums up her opinion of patrons with: "A man becomes a geisha's patron as a secondhand way of acquiring art. He just acquires the person who performs the art." (Cobb, page 100.) This shows that the geisha is the canvass and creator of art rather than purely a manifestation of it; she gives someone the potential to experience art and through this art experience the nature of true beauty. This idea of experiencing beauty is generally at its most potent in the appreciation of physical beauty: the beauty of the geisha herself as well as her mastery of song, music and dance. This also shows another aspect of the geisha lifestyle; art is not the geisha's only attraction or concern, as one geisha says:
"High praise in the geisha world is the expression komata no kereagatta hito. It originally described the beautiful shape of the hairline on the back of the neck. But because we put the makeup on our necks to mirror the shape of the genital area, it now means a geisha with a lovely genital area, a 'beautifully lined place,' who has also developed her gei to a high degree. It is the perfect combination of erotic beauty and high artistic achievement. It is what we aspire to." (Cobb, page 60.)
This quote shows the difficulty of quantifying geisha in a single category; they are artists and they are also powerful women desired by men. In their profession they have combined the two in a seamless fusion.

Geisha and Japanese Fashion

During the Tokugawa period geisha were regulated by "sumptuary laws" which closely restricted what they could wear. These laws were an attempt to separate geisha and prostitutes; the prostitutes wore many-layered kimonos, and a profusion of hair ornaments. Geisha were commanded to wear plainer kimonos and few hair ornaments. In the Meiji era, not only did the rising popularity of geisha influence the political and social realms, they also heavily influenced contemporary fashions trends. Women all over Japan followed these trends. Geisha even started some kimono patterns and ways of wearing kimono. Of course, once the Westernization of fashion began and geisha decided to stay "traditional" the role of geisha in contemporary fashion almost completely disappeared; where once the kimono was the sole costume, and therefore the slight nuances in the way it was worn marked stylistic artistry, Western clothes and influences together with the more transient ideas of fashion began to supercede the Japanese tradition of subtle variation in costume. (General information from Liza Crihfield Dalby: Kimono: Fashioning Culture (New Haven : Yale University Press , c1993))

Western Perceptions
Geisha as Asian harem women?

The Western obsession with the image of the harem woman is well known. Are geisha the Asian equivalent of Middle Eastern harem women? In a way, yes. The mystique that surrounds the geisha institution, not just for Westerners but also for Japanese as well, shrouds the realities of the geisha world. However, combined with this mystique is fragmented and often wrong information. The example of the American GI's not knowing the difference between prostitutes calling themselves "geisha girls" and actual geishas (who the GI's probably didn't see much, if at all) is telling. Due to the exclusivity of access to geisha, curiosity has been rampant about what really happened/happens at "geisha parties;" this has probably led many to place their own ideas/longings in the place of knowledge and so the "worst" sexually is assumed to occur - that geisha are simply "entertainers" until the end of the evening, when their "entertainment" becomes more intimate. So in Western perceptions, geisha are similar to harem women in that they are accessible only to a few men and they are seen as sexual objects for these few. Whether this is true or not has not changed Western fascination with geisha. With the immense popularity of Arthur Golden's Memoirs of a Geisha, thousands, maybe even millions, now have Golden's version of geisha life. This popularity has spawned many other imitators who are jumping on the "geisha bandwagon." An interview with the retired geisha Mineko Iwasaki, the acknowledged source of much of Golden's geisha information, shows her unhappiness with Golden's interpretation: "The book is all about sex," she complains. "He wrote that book on the theme of women selling their bodies. It was not that way at all." However, women selling their bodies is a theme that sells well to the West.

Examples of Western Images of the Geisha

The quintessential image of the geisha is her white face, red lips, dark eyes and elaborate hair. This image is on travel posters, guidebooks to Japan and in innumerable other public relations spaces. It is synonymous with cherry blossoms, Mt. Fuji and "Japan" and is considered part of Japan's cultural heritage.
Not only do geisha "sell" Japan, but they are also prominently displayed on many products; for example, in Norway there is the "geisha girl" rice brand. Another example is "geisha girl" porcelain:
"Geisha girl porcelain was made for export in the late nineteenth century in Japan. It was an inexpensive porcelain often sold in dime stores or used as free premiums. Pieces are sometimes marked with the name of a store. Japanese ladies in kimonos are pictured on the dishes. There are over 125 recorded patterns. Borders of red, blue, green, gold, brown, or several of these colors were used. Modern reproductions are being made."
A web search on "geisha" is just as likely to produce results of "geisha girl" sex portals as pages on the musical "The Geisha." This was a "'musical comedy' called The Geisha, by Sidney Jones, dates from 1896 and was by far the biggest hit of that decade, its popularity outstripping everything else, even The Mikado, throughout Europe." These examples show not only the fascination that the West has with the image of the geisha, but also how enduring this fascination has been, from 1896 to today.
One contemporary example of the image of the geisha is in the American movie "Star Wars: Episode 1: The Phantom Menace." While there are many "borrowings" from Asian cultures (and other cultures), some highly controversial and others easily accepted, the most interesting "borrowing" in the movie (for the interests of this paper) is the appearance of the character Queen Amidala. Her wardrobe and hairstyles are acknowledgely influenced by Asian fashions, present and past. The influence of the geisha can be seen most clearly in her white face, red lip, some of her elaborate headdresses and her kimono outfit. The white face and red lips are one of the world-renown geisha traits. Amidala wears incredibly complicated hairstyles in each scene, many of which are influenced by ancient Chinese Imperial styles, but two of her styles in particular are very similar to maiko hair. Maiko's wear their hair in large stiff configurations made possible by the combing of hot wax through their tresses. Various hair ornaments are added to create a wonderfully decorative look, which happens to have the side effect of creating a bald spot by the age of 20. Amidala wears her hair in a very maiko fashion in one scene; in another she wears a white headdress that creates the same effect but uses cloth and beads instead of hair to create it. Lastly, one of Amidala's outfits, the one that compliments her white headdress, is a kimono. Nowadays kimonos are rarely worn in Japan; geisha are practically the only women who wear them everyday. Thus Amidala's styles borrow directly and indirectly from the geisha fashion tradition.

Conclusions

Geisha have had a complex and ever-changing relationship with Japanese and Western societies. Aspects of this relationship have always included misperceptions, politics, fashion, mystery and glamour. From being the arbiters of fashion and art the geisha have now become the proud guardians of the arts and traditions of a bygone era. Geisha have been sometimes seen in the West as mysterious, harem-like women, sometimes as unique artists. Whatever the impression, their image has been used to sell books, travel guides, rice, porcelain and many other commodities. Their symbolic value is more important than their artistic value to Western society.
Japanese society has somewhat of an ambivalent view towards geisha. Even moving between Japanese localities the perceptions of geisha change. For example, in the more traditional city of Kyoto geisha are accepted as culturally talented people while in the modern city of Tokyo, Japanese are more likely to view geisha as "prostitutes," highly paid ones at that.
What are the reasons for these different perceptions? Again, the fact that little is readily known about geisha in either society probably helps popularize mistakes, but I suggest that the main culprit is inter-societal influence. When Japan modernized during the Meiji Restoration not only were Western technologies imported; Western "eyes" were also brought in, which viewed Japanese culture from a Western perspective. This, combined with the influx of American people and culture following the Second World War, led to a change within Japanese self-perception in regards to geisha. Geisha lost some of the respect of their society and "prostitute" came to stereotype them, especially in the more Westernized cities like Tokyo. This was helped by the occurrence of "geisha-girl" prostitutes who "served" the American GI's. This interaction wasn't only one-sided, however; the West gained a valuable stereotype of Japanese society, one of its favorites, as can be seen in the "Star Wars" geisha influences.
Thus in the person of the geisha one can see clear examples of how Western and Japanese stereotypes, cultural knowledge and artistic perceptions meet and intermingle.

ARASHI - LOVE SO SWEET

f(x)(에프엑스)_LA chA TA(라차타)_뮤직비디오 (KOREAN)

JAPANESE MUSIC

INTRODUCTION

One of the characteristic features of Japanese culture is the way in which the cultural elements of a variety of lands exist side by side in harmony, exerting a constant influence on the existing culture and thus producing a new culture as a result. Music is no exception. The music listened to or played by the Japanese as part of their daily lives is extremely diverse. They enjoy various kinds of traditional Japanese music, Japanese popular songs, American pops, Western classics, and so on, although there are limits to each type's popularity. While music was once confined primarily to live performances in concert, the introduction of radio and later television brought it into homes of the masses. The explosive popularity of electronic reproducing systems in recent years has made music an almost indispensable element in the daily lives of most Japanese.

TRADITIONAL JAPANESE MUSIC

There are two types in traditional Japanese music: art music and folk music. Art music has several different styles, each of which was established separately in different periods of Japanese history. The Japanese have maintained those time-honored styles, modifying them as time has passed. In general, vocal music plays a more important role than instrumental music in the history of Japanese music. Besides, traditional Japanese music often developed as a part of drama such as Noh, Kabukl, and Bunraku.

GAGAKU--ANCIENT COURT MUSIC

The first significant development in the history of Japanese music took place in the Heian Period (794-1192 A.D), While Japanese music which had been popular among common people was being sophisticated, all kinds of music from various Asian countries In the previous two centuries were being assimilated and modified, acquiring distinct Japanese characteristics. Gagaku is the music which was performed mainly at Court among the powerful nobility and upper classes.

Gagaku is classified into three categories: original foreign music, pure Japanese music, and music composed in Japan using influences from other countries. The representative genre of Gagaku has its origin in China, Korea, and other countries in Southeast Asia or South Asia, and is divided into two types such as To-gaku or music of Chinese origin, and Komagaku or music of Korean origin. It is orchestral music without any vocal part. The music is known as Kangen and when accompanied by dancing is called Bugaku.

Pure Japanese music, called Kokufu kabu or Japanese Song Dance, is vocal music with instrumental accompaniment. It is based on very ancient music performed at shrine rites as well as Court ceremonies. The last category includes Saibara with its origin in folk songs and Roei for chanting Chinese poems. They are accompanied with instrumental music.

Instruments used in Gagaku are mouth organs, flageolite-type instruments, flutes, drums, and zither. Arrangements of these instruments differ depending on the genre of music. Gagaku is performed at Court, shrines, and some temples. Recently it has attracted young people's attention and is sometimes used in contemporary music. (For additional information, refer to Facts about Japan: GAGAKU).

In addition to Gagaku, another important music style, Shomyo, was formed during the Heian Period. It is vocal music used in Buddhist services and became a very significant source of Japanese vocal music which developed later.

NOH

During the Kamakura Period (1192 1333 A.D), through the Muromachi Period (1338-1573 A.D.), there was a steady growth of folk theatrical arts from shrine ritual plays and peasant rice-planting dances. By the end of the 14th century, there had developed the artistic Noh drama with its own music called Nohgaku, and dancing known as Shimai. Noh is highly stylized and symbolic drama, and is usually performed by a few male actors and musicians. A main character often wears a mask which fits its role.

Nohgaku has two elements in it: vocal and instrumental. The vocal part called Utai is performed by both actors and a chorus of eight male singers and tells the story. This vocal part which is derived from Shomyo (Buddhist chanting) includes singing and speech stylized m a definite pattern of intonation. Singing is not always accompanied with instruments. The instrumental part known as Hayashi consists of a bamboo flute, or nohkan, and three drums, ko-tsuzumi, o-tsuzumi, and taiko. Taiko is not used in all pieces of the Noh. The flute, the only melodic instrument, produces several short melody patterns. The ko-tsuzumi and o-tsuzumi are played mostly by bare hands while the taiko is played by two drumsticks. Short and sharp shouts by drum performers known as kakegoe also play important musical roles enhancing the tension of the music.

Nohgaku had been patronized by the higher military class which was the most powerful social level in Japan. After the Meiji Restoration when the old hierarchy was discarded, it tried to win new patrons and succeeded in attracting the nobility and wealthy people. Nowadays, it is gaining support from among the general public, too.

SHAKUHACHI, KOTO AND SHAMISEN

The Azuchi-Momoyama Period (1573 1603 A.D.), is important in the historical development of several instruments. The primitive recorder was modified to become the artistic shakuhachi, while the old court zither became the more sonorous koto. The shamisen (a three-stringed balalaika-type guitar) also took on its present shape. All these instruments achieved great popularity in the Edo Period (1603-1868) by various routes.

Shakuhachi was originally played as a part of a Zen service or practice and was the favorite instrument among wandering Buddhist priests. Although the shakuhachi became a purely musical instrument performed by musicians, solo pieces with strong religious significance are still regarded as the most important form of shakuhachi music. It also started to be used with the shamisen and koto as pure music without emphasizing its religious background.

The music for koto is called Sokyoku. Sokyoku had been composed, played, and transmitted solely by the blind while women and girls in the higher military and wealthy merchant classes learned it as part of their cultural education. Two major schools of Sokyoku, the Ikuta school and the Yamada school, were founded in the Edo Period. Most of the pieces performed by the Ikuta school have their sources in Jiuta which is a genre of vocal music accompanied by the shamisen. They often accompany singing together with the shamisen. However, the primary characteristic of this school is its emphasis on instrumental technique unlike other traditional art music. Even a vocal piece has an independent instrumental part which has beauty as absolute music. On the other hand, the Yamada school puts its stress on the vocal elements rather than the instrumental elements. It is characterized by its narrative singing. Both the Ikuta and the Yamada schools include in their repertoires some selections which do not have vocal parts.

The shamisen is used for accompaniment of two types of vocal music: melodious singing and narrative singing. The former type of shamisen music developed in two different directions, Jiuta and Nagauta; Jiuta has been enjoyed as pure music, following an independent existence as music itself; Nagauta was formed as accompaniment for dancing in traditional Kabuki dramas. Later Nagauta has come to be played by itself without dancing in much the same way as the original was played as an accompaniment for dancing. Several styles of shamisen music have been derived from these two major types.

Narrative singing has also several styles of music such as Gidayu-bushi, Kiyomoto, 70ki~axu, and Shin'nai. Gidayu-bushi is mainly used for telling the story in the Bunraku puppet theater. Kiyomoto and Tokiwaxu are often used as accompaniment for dancing in Kabuki. But they are also performed as independent music as is Shin'nai. During the Edo Period, the shamisen be came the favorite instrument in the entertainment district of larger cities. Shakuhachi, koto, and shamisen are often used in trio as pure music.

FOLK SONGS

A great number of folk songs exist in different provinces in Japan. Most of these songs were originally associated with religious events or daily labor, such as farming, fishing, working in the mountains, and packhorse driving. However, now that the lifestyles which generated those songs have drastically changed, they have lost their relationship to the original functions and are generally sung for recreational purposes except in the Okinawa region where folk songs are still alive in daily life. At the same time, the regionality of each song has almost been lost due to the development of the mass media. The great majority of folk songs sung today were formed in the Edo Period and after. Although the origin of folk songs is essentially anonymous, talented poets and composers in the 1920's undertook to compose folk songs based on the traditional style. There are roughly two major musical styles in folk songs: one with free rhythm and the other with metric rhythm. The former types are sung by one singer and were originally sung when one was packhorse driving. This type of song is sometimes accompanied with the shakuhachi. The other type is now often accompanied by drums or shamisen. Folk songs are popular mainly among the older generations.

POPULAR MUSIC

The Japanese also enjoy various types of popular music. Beside Japanese popular music which is supported by the largest number of fans, American jazz and pops, French chansons, Latin music from South America, and canzone from Italy have always attracted many enthusiasts. In recent times, moreover, rock, soul, and folk music from the U.S. have won widespread popularity, especially among the younger generations. Hit numbers and songs are broadcast on radio and television, while foreign TV shows of pop music have been introduced into Japan. Moreover, pop music is constantly performed live and is available on records or tapes, or by cable broadcasts in restaurants and coffee shops, extensively permeating the people'.s daily life.

Popular music numbers and songs, which have become hits in Europe and the U.S., are almost immediately introduced and played in Japan, and recordings are promptly put on sale. A wide range of foreign performers are constantly--and very successfully--appearing in concert in Japan. Those songs are also sung by Japanese popular singers either in the original or in Japanese translation.

The music that receives the broadest sup port from the public in general is Japan's own original popular music called kayo kyoku. People enjoy not only listening to kayo-kyoku songs in live concerts and on radio and television, but also singing them to taped orchestral accompaniment in bars or at home.

The basic styles of kayo-kyoku were established in the late 1910's through the early 1920's. They were from the musical style of songs originally composed for school education. The scales used in school music and kayo-kyoku are a blending of Western and Japanese scales. Melodies based on those pentatonic scales are often characterized by trills and grace notes which are commonly seen in traditional folk songs and the shamisen music of earlier times. While keeping such basic styles as a major element of kayo-kyoku, its form has been widened under the influence of Western popular songs. In those selections of the new style, melodies are more sophisticated and rhythm is more articulated with a strong beat.

In the 1960's, the English rock group, the Beatles, and American folk singers such as Peter, Paul, and Mary, the Brothers Four, and Joan Baez exerted a great influence on the youth of that day, fostering ideas of harmony and deep concern for the nuances of rhythm that had not originally been a part of the Japanese approach to music. Exposed to the method of expressing one's own assertions or feelings in the form of a song, the younger generation started to compose their own tunes and lyrics, and to play them by themselves. Many amateur groups were formed, and various rock and folk bands began to hold concerts in all parts of Japan, winning many followers but also refining their own music and eventually be coming able to attract a wide range of sup porters. Pieces composed by those people after the "Beatles" generation are musically more Westernized than ever before.

JAPANESE CHILDREN'S SONGS

Japanese children's songs can be divided into the traditional and the modern. While the former have been sung by the Japanese over many centuries, the latter started to appear around 1918 after the end of World War I when a movement was begun to create new songs for Japanese children. There are different types of traditional songs for children in Japan, including lullabies, play songs, and festival songs. Songs for smaller children since older times are about rope-skipping, kite-flying, cat's cradle, battledore and shuttlecock, and hide-and-seek.

The movement for new children's songs which started at the end of World War I

produced many songs reflecting the joys of childhood days. Celebrated writers and poets composed many excellent songs at that time. The writers' reminiscences of their childhood used to be favorite themes in these modern children's songs. Today, poets and composers are creating songs for children more directly expressing the children's own feelings and aspirations.

WESTERN MUSIC

The Meiji Restoration of 1868 in Japan opened a new era in which Japan emerged from feudal isolation into the world community of nations.

In those days, Western music was extensively introduced, especially in public education, as part of a concerted effort to modernize the nation. For the purpose of promoting musical education, a music re search institute (the Ongaku-torishirabe sho) was established in 1880 and musical textbooks, which combined Western and Japanese styles of music, were published for the first time. Instrumental music from the West permeated the general public through performances by the military bands of the Army and the Navy, organized with the cooperation of foreign countries such as Britain, France and Germany.

As for the education of professional musicians, the Tokyo Music School (which succeeded the Ongaku-torishirabe-sho and became the Music Department of the Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music in 1949) was established in 1887. In the second decade of the 20th century, private music schools, the predecessors of the present private universities of music, were founded in major cities such as Tokyo or Osaka. Professional musical education has its roots in the widespread musical education of children at home, and there are many private classes, large and small, for helping such home education. Conspicuous among them are such large-scale musical education systems as Suzuk Shin'ichi's Talent Education Research Institute and the Toho Musical Class.

Every conceivable form of Western music is performed, composed, and enjoyed in Japan today. At the apex of musical performance groups is the NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation) Symphony Orchestra in Tokyo with a sixty-year history. Tokyo and other large cities have a fairly large number of professional orchestras and even a number of amateur ones.

There are also many performing groups for chamber music, which also has a large following. Participation in choruses and brass bands is also very popular. It is estimated that several hundreds of thousands of people are singing as members of choruses at lower and upper secondary schools and universities and other amateur chorus groups throughout the country.

Concerts, recitals, and performances of opera and ballet draw large audiences with programs of works by composers ranging from Bach to the most modern experimentalists.

There are many opera lovers in Japan, but presenting opera is not easy since Japanese theaters as a rule do not have the facilities required for such an undertaking. However, in recent years more and more fine singers are appearing. In addition to the numerous performances of opera from abroad, Japanese companies give increasingly fine performances, and there is now a plan to establish a Second National Theater for opera.

Many composers are also active in Japan's musical world, the best-known of them being Takemitsu Toru.

Every year, besides the performances by Japanese musicians there is a steady flow of celebrated foreign musicians and organizations coming to perform in Japan.

Japanese musicians themselves are per forming overseas frequently and are achieving a growing international reputation. Individual conductors are also drawing attention abroad, such as Ozawa Seiji, now music director of the Boston Symphony in the United States, and Wakasugi Hiroshi, who has conducted many European orchestras.

Other internationally known musicians include conductors Iwaki Hiroyuki and Akiyama Kazuyoshi; pianists Sonoda Takahiro and Uchida Mitsuko; violinists Eto Toshiya and Ushioda Masuko; and vocalists Okamura Takao and Azuma Atsuko.

NEW JAPANESE MUSIC

The preservation as well as development of Japanese music in its classical forms is not being neglected and many composers including Miki Minoru and Ishii are actively working on modern compositions in the traditional styles. Especially in the fields of koto music and more recently of shakuhachi music as well, many excellent composers are trying to combine Japanese traditional forms and the Western style. One group dedicated to cultivating new Japanese music within its classical tradition is the Ensemble Nipponica, formed in 1964 and consisting of distinguished soloists and composers. While a chamber orchestra complete with Japanese wind, string, and percussion instruments, it has a broad repertoire using all or some of the instruments, or at times a single instrument in solo performance, in forms approaching the Western style of composition. Yonin-no-kai Tokyo is also making active efforts in this field both in Japan and abroad.

Japanese Tea Ceremony 茶道（さどう、ちゃどう）

Japanese Tea Ceremony Procedures

The steps to the ceremony are quite simple: clean the serving bowls, boil a pot of water, serve a sweet treat to guests before the tea, mix powdered bitter green tea (Matcha) and water to make a frothy tea, serve the tea to guests. [ The flavors of the sweets and bitter tea compliment each other. This is a sign of harmony. ]

1. Bow when you receive the cup of tea which is called a chawan.
2. Take the chawan with your right hand and place it in the palm of your left hand.
3. Turn the chawan clockwise three times before you take a drink.
4. When the tea is gone, make a loud slurp to tell the host that the tea was truly enjoyed.
5. Wipe the part of the chawan your lips touched with your right hand.
6. Turn the chawan counterclockwise and return to the host.

Japanese Tea Ceremony History

In the middle of the 16th century the first Westerners, the Jesuits, arrived in Japan, and at that same time a Japanese man named Rikyu was developing a new approach to the ancient practice of serving tea with some food. It did not take long for the Jesuits to discover and develop an admiration for tea practices and to incorporate them into their everyday life in Japan. But the relationship between western civilization and the tea ceremony came to an abrupt halt when Tokugawa Ieyasu, the Shogun, forced Westerners out of Japan and shut the doors on them for almost 300 years. Although the doors re-opened in 1868, it took almost 100 years for Westerners to develop an interest in the tea ceremony to the extent that they would begin to practice it and not simply view it as a quaint, inscrutable custom of the Japanese.

The experience of a tea ceremony can have 3 dimensions to it:

1. it is a social event;
2. it stresses aesthetics very much;
3. it can have a religious dimension.

That it is a social event is obvious. Guests gather at an appointed time to be served food and drink. This can be an informal tea which consists of serving a sweet and some tea, or even a small meal with the sweet and tea. This is called a chakai and can take anywhere from 20 minutes to an hour or so. The number of guests for this sort of tea can be as small as one, and the highest number of guests is determined only by the limitations of the host's facilities. Guests also can be invited to a much more formal gathering called a chaji which involves highly structured gathering rituals, the serving of a meal in multiple courses, an intermission in a garden, and then a solemn thick tea ceremony followed by the less solemn thin Japanese tea ceremony.

A chaji will last from 3 to 5 hours and only 5 guests at most will be present. Both the chakai and the chaji have the same purpose which is to serve food and drink to guests. The difference lies in the quantity of food and drink, and the increased amount of ritualized movement that is necessary when you are serving more and doing it in your finest fashion. As with any serving of food and drink in the world, a sensible host will invite people who are compatible, for no one sits down with enemies to share a meal. In English we have the word "companion" which means a friend who does things with you. Etymologically "companion" came from 2 Latin words, cum which means with, and pan which means bread. Thus the original meaning of the word was the one with whom you were willing to share food. I believe that all nations can readily associate the sharing of food and drink as a symbol of friendly acceptance. The Japanese tea ceremony is definitely this sort of social event.

Let's turn now to the aesthetic dimension of tea. All great cultures in the history of civilization take care to serve a meal in a proscribed manner, and that prescription will always involve a certain amount of beauty. The appearance of the food, the utensils used in serving the food, and the decoration of the eating place should be quite appealing to the eyes. This is common throughout the world. In the tea ceremony this concern for beauty is so deeply pursued that tea can truly be referred to as an art form. Body movement is completely choreographed, even down to finger positions. Tea utensils can be of such a high quality that you will find them in art museums throughout the world. This is true also of tea architecture. (The Philadelphia and Los Angeles museums have complete tea house complexes which they display with great pride.) The arrangement of food in a chakai or a chaji can be so striking in beauty and so subtle in choice and form that it is almost on the level of poetry. The Japanese say that food must be tasted with the eyes before it is tasted with the mouth.

People frequently ask, "How long does it take to learn the tea ceremony?" This is like asking, "How long does it take to learn to play the piano? "If you are a fast learner, you will be able to play a simple tune within 10 weeks, but if you really want to play well, count more on 10 years. There is an old Latin saying, Ars est celare arlem. This means that true art is so subtle that it looks quite natural and simple -- it does not look contrived. This is true of the art of tea also, and thus it takes years of study and practice in order to master it. People are surprised when you tell them that it takes years to learn tea, but think about how long it took you to learn proper table manners, and these, though refined, are certainly not on the level of an art form. And think too about the many years any good cook has spent in developing the ability to gracefully prepare and serve a good meal.

The tea ceremony as an art form cuts through a whole spectrum of Japanese culture because it embraces many art forms such as architecture, gardening, ceramics, textiles, Japanese calligraphy, flower arrangement, and Japanese cuisine, plus a few rather arcane art forms such as the sculpting of ashes and the building of a beautiful fire. Certain arrangements of ashes on which charcoal is placed can take as long as two hours to prepare. Other than the Japanese tea ceremony, where else can you find humble ashes raised to such a level of refinement and beauty? Indeed, they are the finest ashes in the world. A story is told about three tea masters who had a magnificent tea room with much valuable equipment. One day the house caught fire and the 3 tea masters rushed in to save what they could. The first thing they saved was the ashes! The point being made with this story is that everything involved in a tea ceremony has been given careful aesthetic attention, even the ashes. Going to a high quality tea ceremony can be every bit as much of an aesthetic experience as going to an art museum or the theater.

The third dimension of tea is the religious dimension, and it is optional. I would compare this to meals in Muslim or Jewish, or Christian homes, and many other religious homes. Pious people in these religious traditions will bring a religious mentality to meals and thus experience the meal as a religious event. The religious mentality which is frequently brought to a tea ceremony is that of Zen Buddhism. Zen people talk about the whole universe being experienced in the drinking of a bowl of tea. This experience comes from giving yourself over totally to the here and now and fully participating in the tea with a heart free from selfish desires. But this is up to the individuals participating in the tea. As Mr. Yamada, the director of Urasenke in New York, says, "Zen people (particularly of the Rinzai sect) are often interested in tea, and tea people are often interested in Zen, but tea is tea and Zen is Zen." One could just as easily bring a Christian or Islamic mentality to a tea ceremony, and in fact Soshitsu Sen XV, the present Grand Master, highly encourages just this sort of thing. Giving oneself over to the here and now with a heart free from selfish desire is a thought quite acceptable to all the major religions of the world. Christians speak about experiencing Christ at the supper table; he can also be experienced at tea. Jews speak of living out their covenant with God by keeping his law. Tea can be quite kosher. And Muslims can accept the will of Allah while sharing food and tea. Tea is for all nations, all cultures, and all religious traditions.

Difference Between Karate and Tae Kwon Do

The two most common martial arts practiced in North America are karate and tae kwon do. Many wonder what the difference between these two martial arts is. This is especially the case for those who are just starting to look around for a martial arts studio. After all, most practitioners in both karate and tae kwon do seem to wear the same type of white gi uniforms with various colored belts.

Modern traditional karate was developed in the islands of Okinawa in Japan after some influences from Chinese martial arts. There are actually different styles of karate but they are all commonly considered as Japanese martial arts today. The colored belt system was developed to show the various ranks of karate practitioners with white depicting novices and black belts (with various degrees) representing instructor levels and higher. There is a whole range of other different colors in between. Modern tae kwon do was developed in Korea after much influence from Japanese karate during the occupation by Japan. Indeed, tae kwon do is sometimes referred to as Korean karate. The Koreans adopted similar white uniforms along with a colored belt ranking system for tae kwon do. Today, there are two main styles of tae kwon do, one under the International Tae Kwon Do Federation and the other under the World Tae Kwon Do Federation. Many tae kwon do schools have added a black lining to their white uniforms for black belt levels. A V-neck top is often seen in schools affiliated with the World Tae Kwon Do Federation. There are also older Korean styles including tang soo do and moo duk kwan. Some of the more Americanized karate and tae kwon do schools also use uniforms with other colors such as red, black and blue in addition to the traditional white.

It can be generalized that in karate, one would use their arms or hands for 60% of the time for strikes or blocks while the use of legs for kicking will be about 40%. This breakdown is seen in the many forms or katas of karate which are set routines which simulate fighting against imaginary opponents using martial arts techniques. The forms from tae kwon do would have the opposite percentage breakdown with 40% hands and 60% legs. In tae kwon do, there is also more emphasis on higher kicks to the head level than in karate. Tae kwon do practitioners also utilize more jumping or flying kicks where one is airborne while executing kicking techniques. The tae kwon do forms or patterns are generally a bit shorter and less complex than the karate forms. Some tae kwon do schools have been known to use the odd karate form in its curriculum as well.

In North America as well as other parts of the world, there are separate traditional competitions for karate and tae kwon do. However, the open martial arts tournaments in North America often have competitors from both karate and tae kwon do competing together. Some of the larger open martial arts competition events will have separate forms divisions for Japanese karate and Korean tae kwon do competitors but the fighting or sparring divisions will usually be combined. Many black belts in tae kwon do end up studying karate as well and the opposite has been true too. Tae kwon do has received more publicity in recent years since its introduction as an Olympic sport. The style and rules used for the Olympic version of tae kwon do fighting comes from the World Tae Kwon Do Federation (WTF). Both karate and tae kwon do are considered as hard style martial arts in North America today (as opposed to soft styles such as the many versions of Chinese kung fu).